Despite the rapid development of

Despite the rapid development of synthetic ligands, the endogenous ligands of GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 remained elusive until recently. This is probably the result of their relatively low potencies and their metabolite character (Table 1). Traditionally, agonists of GPCRs were believed to belong to the group of hormones, mediators or transmitters, whereas only recently it has become clear that metabolites also use GPCRs to regulate body functions. In this regard, the hydroxy-carboxylic further information receptor subfamily of GPCRs shares similarities with the free fatty acid receptor family or with receptors for citric acid cycle intermediates 24, 25. A striking similarity between the natural ligands of GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 is their carboxylic acid function as well as the presence of a hydroxy group in the 2- or 3-position. Thus, this GPCR subfamily can be regarded as a family of hydroxy-carboxylic acid receptors. The orphan receptor GPR31 and the 5-oxo-6,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE) receptor OXER1 are the receptors most closely related to GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 (Figure 1) 26, 27. Interestingly, the arginine residue in transmembrane helix 3, which has been suggested to serve as an anchor point of the carboxylic group of GPR109A ligands [28] is not only conserved among GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 but also in GPR31 and the 5-oxo-ETE receptor (Figure 1). OXER1 binds 5-oxo-ETE as well as, with lesser affinity, 5-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid and 5-hydroperoxy-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-HpETE) [29]. Thus, OXER1, a receptor for a polyunsaturated fatty acid with an oxo, hydroxy or hydroperoxy substitution in the 5-position might well be regarded as another member of the hydroxy-carboxylic acid receptor family.
Tissue distribution and signaling GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 are predominantly expressed in adipocytes of both white and brown adipose tissue 5, 6, 10. The expression of the lactate receptor GPR81 appears to be restricted to adipose tissue with only minor amounts of mRNA also found in kidney, skeletal muscle and liver 6, 10, 30. In contrast, both expression and functional data clearly indicate that GPR109A is also expressed in various immune cells including monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells and epidermal Langerhans cells 3, 31, 32. In addition, expression of GPR109A has also been reported in retinal pigment epithelium as well as in the intestinal epithelium 33, 34. GPR109B appears to share with GPR109A its expression in adipose tissue as well as in various immune cells 4, 6, 11, 22, 35. Analysis of the signaling mechanisms induced by the natural agonists of GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 showed that they are pertussis toxin-sensitive, indicating that this receptor family couples to Gi-type G proteins 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 22, 30. In most cells, activation of Gi-type G proteins results in an inhibition of adenylyl cyclase. In some cells, especially those of the immune system, Gi-activation via Gβγ-subunits also leads to an activation of β-isoforms of phospholipase C.
Physiological and pathophysiological roles The coupling of GPR109A, GPR109B and GPR81 to Gi and their predominant expression in adipose cells suggests that these receptors mediate an inhibition of adipocyte adenylyl cyclase resulting in an antilipolytic effect. Indeed, 3-hydroxy-butyrate, 3-hydroxy-octanoate as well as 2-hydroxy-propanoate (lactate) have been shown to inhibit lipolysis at concentrations sufficient to activate their respective GPCRs 8, 10, 11. In the case of 3-hydroxy-butyrate and lactate, studies in mice lacking GPR109A or GPR81 have confirmed the involvement of these receptors in the antilipolytic effects of their ligands 5, 9, 10. The activation of GPR109A and GPR109B on adipocytes by their endogenous ligand requires millimolar concentrations of 3-hydroxy-butyrate and micromolar concentrations of 3-hydroxy-octanoate. These concentrations are typically reached under conditions of increased free fatty acid oxidation and subsequent ketone body formation as it occurs during fasting, diabetic ketoacidosis, in mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation disorders or under the influence of a ketogenic diet 11, 36, 37, 38. Under these conditions, activation of GPR109A and GPR109B would inhibit free fatty acid release from adipocytes thereby providing a negative feedback mechanism to counterbalance prolipolytic stimuli in situations of strongly increased lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation to avoid excessive degradation of triglycerides and thereby a waste of energy (Figure 2).